On the first night of Israel’s air strikes on Tehran, Sanam, a mother in her fifties, struggled to convince her teenage daughter to sleep on the living room floor instead of in her own bed near a window.
For many of Sanam’s generation, the explosions in Iran’s capital after decades of peace are unsettling echoes of the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s. “I know from experience,” she said, “it is safer to stay in interior rooms to be away from flying shards.” Like many Iranians, she asked for her surname to be withheld to avoid scrutiny from authorities.
What is not yet clear is whether Israel’s attacks will strengthen or undermine support for the Islamic regime.
Israel has warned that Tehran “will burn” if Iran continues its retaliatory attacks on Israeli cities, and Benjamin Netanyahu, the Israeli prime minister, has called on Iranians to “stand up for your freedom” against Ayatollah Ali Khamenei’s regime.
Debates are raging in Iran across social media and in private conversations among families and friends. Most Iranians rejected Netanyahu’s message but it is not yet known to what extent the public will rally round their beleaguered government.
Iranian society was already polarised between supporters and opponents of the regime, and in this proud and nationalistic country critics who have blamed the authorities for their economic hardships will be reluctant to say or do anything that could be perceived as support for Israel.
In many cities, regime supporters took out to the streets late on Friday, celebrating Iran’s retaliatory strikes on Israel.
“It was such a relief to see all Israelis fleeing to shelters to escape Iranian missiles. They should know that they will never win over us by killing our commanders,” said Ahmad, 40, calling on Iran to continue striking Israel until its “total annihilation”.
On Saturday, text messages were sent to Tehran residents inviting them to attend the Eid al-Ghadir procession: the annual public rally, which marks the appointment of the first Shia Muslim Imam, usually draws huge pro-regime crowds, with the Islamic republic seizing the occasion as a display of public support and legitimacy.
“Iran does not fall. It shudders, but rises from its ashes like a phoenix,” read a post on the Instagram account of Mohammad Reza Shafei Kadkani, a leading Iranian poet. The patriotic message, signifying that Iran will endure despite all hardships, received tens of thousands of likes and comments from both regime loyalists and opponents.
Mohammad Fazeli, a prominent sociologist, said his “professional life” had been devoted to criticising the Islamic republic’s “poor governance”, and he recalled how his comments had led to his dismissal as a university professor. Now, however, he has called for “national solidarity” against a “foreign enemy”.
He wrote on X: “Iran must remain, so we can strive to build it from within. Stay Iran — you are our home.”
Some opponents of the Islamic republic blame decades of “meddlesome” regional policy for the latest conflict. “Look at their regional policies and look at how they treat their own people. They have caused trouble in every corner of the region. Why are they pitting us against Israel and the Jews? They triggered a dangerous person like Netanyahu to the point of attacking us,” said Maryam, 37.
“What do we need [uranium] enrichment for? Where is our nuclear-generated electricity? They have invested so much in missiles and nuclear power. What do we get in return? War?” Maryam asked, saying she hoped Iran would continue to negotiate with the US to “finally end this mess”.
After Netanyahu used the Iranian “Woman, Life, Freedom” slogan — which dates back to protests three years ago over the death in police custody of a woman accused of being improperly dressed — and urged people to stand up to their “oppressive regime”, women’s rights campaigners accused him of hypocrisy.
“That slogan coming out of the mouth of a criminal like him for his personal and political gain destroys its meaning,” said Nastaran, an advocate for the movement.
The civilian toll from the Israeli strikes — victims included Parsa Mansour, a member of national padel team, Parnia Abbasi, a young poet, and Amir Ali Amini, a member of the national junior taekwondo team — has outraged the Iranian public.
“I am so worried about VIPs living in buildings near our house. This puts so many civilian lives at risk,” said Sanam, referring to the high-ranking government and military officials living in civilian areas.
Iran’s claims of scoring military gains in its retaliatory missile strikes on Israel — including the purported shooting down of two F-35 jets that Israel has denied — were praised even by critics of the establishment.
“I wish it were true. Losing F-35s to Iranian air defence would be such a disgrace for them, after killing so many people in their sleep,” Ali, 62, said of Israel’s lightning attack before dawn on Friday.
Kamran, 30, believed it was “outrageous” for a small country like Israel to attack Iran. “This is outright aggression. Right now is not the time to settle scores with the Islamic republic. We need to be united,” he said.
“For decades, they [the Iranian regime] have spent national resources on missiles and nuclear power. It’s showtime now. Let them forge ahead with all power and give Israel an unforgettable lesson.”
Iranian leaders have been urging the public to keep calm, stay indoors and receive their news only from certified sources, but there are no official guidelines about how to stay safe.
Tehran has been one of the safest cities in the region for the past three decades. Unlike Israel, which has invested in underground public shelters, there are no designated public spaces where Tehran residents can hide in the event of an air strike, leaving them reliant on improvisation and luck.
Fear spread through the Iranian capital as soon as Israel launched its strikes in the early hours of Friday, killing top-ranking military commanders, nuclear scientists and civilians.
Within hours, long queues were forming at petrol stations as residents rushed to fill their tanks and motorists prepared to flee north to towns on the shore of the Caspian Sea.
“We woke up to the sound of explosions. They didn’t even give us air raid alarms before the strikes,” said Morteza, 55. “I remember how we would take shelter in car parks of tall buildings during the Iraq war. But times have changed. Some people do not even have access to basement space these days.”
